Toyota Vitz

The Toyota Vitz a 3 and 5-door hatchback (sold in different markets as the Toyota Yarisand formerly as the Toyota Echo) is a line of subcompact cars first launched by Toyota in 1999, designed by Sotiris Kovos. In Europe, the Americas, Australia, New Zealand andSouth Africa, the Vitz is sold as the Yaris Liftback (or simply Yaris).

The first generation Vitz was known as the Echo Hatchback in Canada, Hong Kong, Australia, New Zealand and in the United States. In its second generation, the Vitz and Belta are marketed in US/Canada as the Yaris Hatchback and Yaris, respectively.

First generation (1999-2005)

Europe/Israel :-

                               The Toyota Yaris went on sale in Europe and Israel early in 1999. After the launch of the European Yaris hatchback in May 1999, a slightly modified version went on sale in Canada for the 2004 model year as the Echo hatchback, but not in the United States, where theToyota Echo sedan and coupe were the lone models. The Toyota Yaris was votedEuropean Car of the Year in 2000, defeating the innovative Fiat Multipla and Opel/Vauxhall Zafira by a narrow and large margin. The Yaris was also awarded the 2000 Semperit Irish Car of the Year.

Instead of conventional instruments, the Yaris and Echo hatchbacks utilized digital instruments which were mounted in a "pod" in the center of the dashboard. The Canadian Echo hatchback (and the Yaris T Sport) had a conventional speedometer but it was still mounted in the center of the dashboard.

The European Yaris was initially available withpetrol-powered 4-cylinder 1.0 L or 1.3 L engines with Toyota's VVT-i technology, with the warm hatch 1.5 L T Sport following in 2001. After the 2003 facelift, a 1.4 L D4-D diesel engine offering 75 hp (56 kW) was also included in the lineup. This diesel engine is also licensed to BMWfor use in their MINI One D model. The use of sophisticated engine management systems was said to give the equivalent of 1.4 litre performance from a 1.0 litre engine while maintaining low fuel consumption and emissions.

On most European and Israeli markets, the Yaris was a stronger seller than the Starlet that it replaced.

Japan

The Japanese Vitz RS (European Yaris T-Sport) was introduced in 2001 and was powered by a 1.5 L (108 hp) engine, shared with the Echo, Vios, as well as the Scion xA. The 1.5 L T Sport was more fun to drive than the base models because of a sportier suspension and extra power compared to the 1.3 L (90 hp) and 1.0 L (67 hp) models. Later, the Vitz RS was modified by TRD (Toyota Racing Developments), and was fitted with a turbo-charger. A limited run was produced with a power output of around 120 kW (163 PS; 161 bhp) and a 0–100 km/h (0-62 mph) time of just 7 seconds. Note that there is also a 1.3L JDM Vitz RS with the 2NZ-FE engine 7–10 km/litre in city 12–13 km/litre which shares brakes, body kit, headlights, suspension and interior with the 1.5 L Vitz RS 5.5-9.5 km/litre in city 10-12.8 km/litre on highway.

North America

                                The Echo sold in very high volumes in Canada, where smaller cars are much more popular than in the US. Sales were so high that Toyota introduced the 3 and 5-door hatchback models to the Canadian Toyota lineup for the 2004 model year. They were sold as the 'Echo hatchback' and look almost identical to the European Yaris, but with minor changes (e.g. larger bumpers) to meet Canadian safety requirements.

Australia

                       The Echo was also very popular in Australia. First introduced in late 1999 to replace the aging Starlet, the Echo was available as a 3 or 5-door hatchback, fitted only with the 1.3l VVT-i engine. An Echo Sportivo variant, fitted with the 1.5l VVT-i engine, was made available for a limited time in Australia. The Sportivo was very similar to the European Yaris T-Sport.

Yaris Verso

                          An unusual addition to the Yaris range came in late 1999 with the Yaris Verso, or Echo Verso in some markets, a small MPV which used the same running gear as the conventional hatchback, but was designed to have an even more practical interior.

In Japan, the model bore the name of 'Funcargo'. The model was replaced by the Ractis in 2004, but this is a Japan-only model due to the disappointing sales of the Yaris Verso in Europe.

Second generation (2005-present)
                                                            Toyota redesigned the Vitz in early 2005, going on sale in Japan that February. The Toyota Belta sedan, shares underpinnings with the Vitz. However, while the Vitz was designed at Toyota's European ED2 design studios, the Belta was designed at their Japanese design studios. While the outgoing Vitz hatchback and Platz sedan look and feel virtually alike, the redesigned Vitz and Belta are more subtly related. The two cars share a frame and the drivetrain components however the sheet metal is different.

The European, Australian, Canadian, Mexican, Venezuelan and Puerto Rican markets saw the second generation Vitz near the end of 2005. In the Australian and North American markets, the car was sold as the "Yaris" for the first time. The production Yaris for the US market was unveiled at the Los Angeles Auto Show in January 2006.

The new Yaris is built in Japan, France, and Thailand.

The previous 4-cylinder 1.0 VVT-i engine was replaced by the 3-cylinder engine also found in the Toyota Aygo. The 1.3 liter engine was revised to offer slightly more power, and the 1.4 D-4D got a 15 PS (11 kW; 15 hp) boost to 90 PS (66 kW; 89 hp), the former engine allowing it to achieve exceptional fuel economy. The Yaris became the first car in its class to offer nine airbags.

For model year 2007 on Japanese models only, G-BOOK, a subscription telematicsservice, is offered as an option.

I

t has continued to prove popular in Europe, particularly in Britain, where it competes with models such as the Ford Fiesta, Vauxhall Corsa, Citroen C2 and the Peugeot 207. It also has been very popular in Pakistan.

In January 2009, Toyota recalled 1.28 million vehicles worldwide based on the Yaris platform, such as the Vitz, Belta and the Ractis. The recall is based on a seat belt defect that, in severe front-end collisions, could cause a foam pad in the vehicle to ignite.

North America

                            

The Canadian Yaris hatchback is available in 3 and 5-door models, running on the Toyota NZ engine, a 1.5 L 4-cylinder VVT-i engine rated 106 bhp (79 kW) and 103 lb·ft (140 N·m). The 2006 Yaris with the 1.5 liter engine can achieve fuel economy ratings of 40 miles per US gallon (5.9 L/100 km; 48 mpg-imp) during highway driving and 34 mpg-US (6.9 L/100 km; 41 mpg-imp) during city driving. 3-door CE and 5-door LE versions come with 14 in (355.6 mm) wheels, while RS models are equipped with 15 in (381 mm) alloys with standard anti-lock braking system (ABS) and electronic brakeforce distribution (EBD). In addition, 2008 RS models include new front and back skirts.

The US Yaris is similar to the Canadian variant, and is the successor to the previous North American Toyota Echo. In the US, the 3-door Vitz shares the Yaris name with the Toyota Belta sedan. The 3-door model is called the 'Yaris Liftback', while the 5-door model will be sold starting with the 2009 model year in the United States and competes with the similarly-equipped Scion xD. The 2008 model year US Yaris comes standard with the 1.5 liter VVT-i engine producing 106 hp and 103 lb·ft and five-speed manual transmission C54, the four-speedautomatic U340E being optional. Fuel economy is rated at 29 mpg 7-9.5 km/lite in the city and 36 mpg 11-12.8 km/lite on the highway with the manual transmission. While front airbags are standard, as mandated by the law, ABS and side airbags are available only as an option.

In Canada, the CE, LE, and RS packages are replaced by the more modular convenience, power, and all-weather guard packages.

For the 2009 year, the Yaris 5-door liftbacks join the lineup of the existing 4-door sedans and 3-door liftbacks because of the increased demand for fuel efficient subcompact cars. In addition to the new 5-door liftback, all 2009 Yaris models come standard with anti-lock brakes (ABS), front seat-mounted side airbags and front and rear curtain side airbags. For 2009, Toyota also added cruise control as an option on liftback models, and has added a few more colour choices.

The Yaris has been praised by the automotive press for its extremely high fuel economy, but criticized for its excessive body roll (due to a soft suspension and high ride height) and the initial lack of a manual transmission on 5-door models.

The 2010 model has a 5-speed manual option for the 5-door. It also has the Star Safety System - Vehicle Stability Control (VSC) + Traction Control (TRAC), Anti-lock Brake System (ABS) with Electronic Brake-force Distribution (EBD) and Brake Assist.

Safety

2005 EuroNCAP crash test (5-door)
Adult: , 35 points
Child: , 34 points
Pedestrian: , 18 points

National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) crash test (5-door)
Frontal driver:
Frontal passenger:
Side driver (side airbags):
Side rear passenger (side airbags):
Rollover:

National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) crash test (3-door)
Frontal driver:
Frontal passenger:
Side driver: (no side airbags)
Side driver: (side airbags):[13]
Side rear passenger (with or without side airbag):
Rollover: 

Malaysia

The Yaris is also available in Malaysia, powered by the 1NZ-FE engine with 4-cylinder DOHC with VVT-i. It comes in 2 trim levels: 1.5 G and 1.5 S, both with 4-speed automatic transmission with Super ECT and Gate Shifter, featuring an output of 80 kW@6000 rpm, and a torque of 141 N·m (104 lb·ft)@4200 rpm.

The 1.5S variant comes with 15” solid disc brakes for the front wheels, front and rear bumper spoilers, side skirt and rear spoiler, amber Optitron meter, a black center cluster, with a steering wheel, gearshift and knob in leather.

Indonesia

The Yaris was launched in Indonesia in 2006. It is powered by the 1.5 liter 1NZ-FE engine matched to 4-speed super ECT automatic or 5-speed Manual transmission. Initially, the Yaris was offered in E, S, and S Limited trim levels. The manual only S and automatic only S Limited came with front, side and rear spoilers. The Yaris received minor changes for 2009 model year with new bumpers, grille, tail lights, and revised interior. The new base model J was added into the line up. The mid-level E got aero-style mudguards and roof spoiler, while full body kits are remained on the S and S Limited. The S Limited TRD Sportivo with extreme body kits and lowered springs was offered in the small numbers. Prepared by Toyota Team Indonesia, the slightly modified Yaris is raced in the Indonesian Touring Car Championship, and often achieved good results.

RS

The Toyota Yaris RS was launched in 2007. It was first seen at the Geneva Motor Show and is powered by the new 130 bhp (97 kW) 1.8 2ZR-FE DOHC L dual VVT-i I4 gasoline engine, which can reach 100 km/h (62 mph) in under 10 seconds. The RS features 17 in (431.8 mm) alloy wheels, a mesh grille, a redesigned rear bumper, deep side skirts and a tail spoiler. It also features redesigned headlights and taillights. As in the previous T-Sport, there are extra rear lights on the bumper. Essentially, it is a JDM Vitz RS fitted with a 2ZR-FE engine.

Hydraulic brake

The hydraulic brake is an arrangement of braking mechanism which uses brake fluid, typically containing ethylene glycol, to transfer pressure from the controlling unit, which is usually near the operator of the vehicle, to the actual brake mechanism, which is usually at or near the wheel of the vehicle.

Construction:- 

                                     The most common arrangement of hydraulic brakes for passenger vehicles, motorcycles, scooters, and mopeds, consists of the following:
Brake pedal or lever
A pushrod (also called an actuating rod)
A master cylinder assembly containing a piston assembly (made up of either one or two pistons, a return spring, a series of gaskets/ O-rings and a fluid reservoir)
Reinforced hydraulic lines
Brake caliper assembly usually consisting of one or two hollow aluminum or chrome-plated steel pistons (called caliper pistons), a set of thermally conductive brake pads and a rotor (also called a brake disc) or drum attached to a axle.

The system is usually filled with a glycol-ether based brake fluid (other fluids may also be used).

At one time, passenger vehicles commonly employed disc brakes on the front wheels and drum brakes on the rear wheels. However, because disc brakes have been shown a better stopping performance and are therefore generally safer and more effective than drum brakes, four-wheel disc brakes have become increasingly popular, replacing drums on all but the most basic vehicles. Many two-wheel vehicles designs, however, continue to employ a drum brake for the rear wheel.

For simplicity, the braking system described hereafter uses the terminology and configuration for a simple disc brake.

System Operation :-

                                                 Within a hydraulic brake system, as the brake pedal is pressed/ brake lever is squeezed, a pushrod exerts force on the piston(s) in the master cylinder causing fluid from the brake fluid reservoir to flow into a pressure chamber through a compensating port which results in an increase in the pressure of the entire hydraulic system. This forces fluid through the hydraulic lines toward one or more calipers where it acts upon one or two additional caliper pistons secured by one or more seated O-rings which prevent the escape of any fluid from around the piston.

The brake caliper piston(s) then apply force to the brake pads. This causes them to be pushed against the spinning rotor, and the friction between the pads and the rotor causes a braking torque to be generated, slowing the vehicle. Heat generated from this friction is often dissipated through vents and channels in the rotor and through the pads themselves which are made of specialized heat-tolerant materials (kevlar, sintered glass, et al.).

Subsequent release of the brake pedal/ lever allows the spring(s) within the master cylinder assembly to return that assembly's piston(s) back into position. This relieves the hydraulic pressure on the caliper allowing the brake piston in the caliper assembly to slide back into its housing and the brake pads to release the rotor. Unless there is a leak somewhere in the system, at no point does any of the brake fluid enter or leave.

Component specifics :-

                                        (For typical light duty automotive braking systems)

The brake pedal is a simple lever. One end is attached to the framework of the vehicle, a pushrod extends from a point along its length, and the foot pad is at the other end of the lever. The rod either extends to the master cylinder (manual brakes) or to the vacuum booster (power brakes).

In a four-wheel car, the master cylinder is divided internally into two sections, each of which pressurizes a separate hydraulic circuit. Each section supplies pressure to one circuit. Passenger vehicles typically have either a front/rear split brake system or a diagonal split brake system (the master cylinder in a motorcycle or scooter may only pressurize a single unit, which will be the front brake).

A front/rear split system uses one master cylinder section to pressurize the front caliper pistons and the other section to pressurize the rear caliper pistons. A split circuit braking system is now required by law in most countries for safety reasons; if one circuit fails, the other circuit can stop the vehicle.

Diagonal split systems were used initially on American Motors automobiles in the 1967 production year. The right front and left rear are served by one actuating piston while the left front and the right rear are served, exclusively, by a second actuating piston (both pistons pressurize their respective coupled lines from a single foot pedal). If either circuit fails, the other, with at least one front wheel braking (the front brakes provide most of the speed reduction) remains intact to stop the mechanically-damaged vehicle. Just before 1970, diagonally split systems had become universal for automobiles sold in the United States.

The diameter and length of the master cylinder has a significant effect on the performance of the brake system. A larger diameter master cylinder delivers more hydraulic fluid to the caliper pistons, yet requires more brake pedal force and less brake pedal stroke to achieve a given deceleration. A smaller diameter master cylinder has the opposite effect.

A master cylinder may also use differing diameters between the two sections to allow for increased fluid volume to one set of caliper pistons or the other.

Power brakes:-
                                        The vacuum booster or vacuum servo is used in most modern hydraulic brake systems which contain four wheels. The vacuum booster is attached between the master cylinder and the brake pedal and multiplies the braking force applied by the driver. These units consist of a hollow housing with a movable rubber diaphragm across the center, creating two chambers. When attached to the low-pressure portion of the throttle body or intake manifold of the engine, the pressure in both chambers of the unit is lowered. The equilibrium created by the low pressure in both chambers keeps the diaphragm from moving until the brake pedal is depressed. A return spring keeps the diaphragm in the starting position until the brake pedal is applied. When the brake pedal is applied, the movement opens an air valve which lets in atmospheric pressure air to one chamber of the booster. Since the pressure becomes higher in one chamber, the diaphragm moves toward the lower pressure chamber with a force created by the area of the diaphragm and the differential pressure. This force, in addition to the driver's foot force, pushes on the master cylinder piston. A relatively small diameter booster unit is required; for a very conservative 50% manifold vacuum, an assisting force of about 1500 N (200n) is produced by a 20 cm diaphragm with an area of 0.03 square meters. The diaphragm will stop moving when the forces on both sides of the chamber reach equilibrium. This can be caused by either the air valve closing (due to the pedal apply stopping) or if "run out" is reached. Run out occurs when the pressure in one chamber reaches atmospheric pressure and no additional force can be generated by the now stagnant differential pressure. After the run out point is reached, only the driver's foot force can be used to further apply the master cylinder piston.

The fluid pressure from the master cylinder travels through a pair of steel brake tubes to a pressure differential valve, sometimes referred to as a "brake failure valve", which performs two functions: it equalizes pressure between the two systems, and it provides a warning if one system loses pressure. The pressure differential valve has two chambers (to which the hydraulic lines attach) with a piston between them. When the pressure in either line is balanced, the piston does not move. If the pressure on one side is lost, the pressure from the other side moves the piston. When the piston makes contact with a simple electrical probe in the center of the unit, a circuit is completed, and the operator is warned of a failure in the brake system.

From the pressure differential valve, brake tubing carries the pressure to the brake units at the wheels. Since the wheels do not maintain a fixed relation to the automobile, it is necessary to use hydraulic brake hose from the end of the steel line at the vehicle frame to the caliper at the wheel. Allowing steel brake tubing to flex invites metal fatigue and, ultimately, brake failure. A common upgrade is to replace the standard rubber hoses with a set which are externally reinforced with braided stainless-steel wires; these have negligible expansion under pressure and can give a firmer feel to the brake pedal with less pedal travel for a given braking effort.

HYDRAULIC BRAKES:-                                                                                            The hydraulic brake system used in the automobile is a multiple piston system. A multiple piston system allows forces to be transmitted totwo or more pistons in the manner indicated in figure 2-21. Note that the pressure set up by the force applied to the input piston (1) is transmitted undiminished to both output pistons (2 and 3), and that the resultant force on each piston is proportional to its area. The multiplication of forces from the input piston to each output piston is the same as that explained earlier.
The hydraulic brake system from the master cylinders to the wheel cylinders on most automobiles operates in a way similar to the system illustrated in figure 2-22.

Figure 2-21.—Multiple piston system.When the brake pedal is depressed, the pressure on the brake pedal moves the piston within the master cylinder, forcing the brake fluidfrom the master cylinder through the tubing and flexible hose to the wheel cylinders. The wheel cylinders contain two opposed output pistons, each of which is attached to a brake shoe fitted inside the brake drum. Each output piston pushes the attached brake shoe against the wall of the brake drum, thus retarding the rotation of the wheel. When pressure on the pedal is released, the springs on the brake shoes return the wheel cylinder pistons to their released positions. This action forces the displaced brake fluid back through the flexible hose and tubing to the master cylinder.
The force applied to the brake pedal produces a proportional force on each of the output pistons, which in turn apply the brake shoesfrictionally to the turning wheels to retard rotation.
As previously mentioned, the hydraulic brake system on most automobiles operates in a similar way, as shown in figure 2-22. It is beyond the scope of this manual to discuss the various brake systems.

Brake Pedal The brake pedal is directly attached to the master cylinder. Pedal pulsation, excessive pedal travel, a "soft" or "hard" pedal can be indicators of serious problems, including a leak in the hydraulic system, low fluid levels, or unevenly worn shoes or pads.

1. 

Master Cylinder

The master cylinder acts as a holding tank for brake fluid until it is needed. When the brake pedal is depressed, the master cylinder forces fluid to each of the vehicle's wheels.

Wear on the master cylinder's moving parts may allow brake fluid to leak, causing unreliable stopping or possible system failure.

Combination Valve

A vehicle's wheel can lock up if the front and rear brake systems are not working together properly. Comprised of a metering valve, proportioning valve, and brake warning light, the combination valve helps regulate the amount of pressure on each set of wheels -- making sure both front and rear brakes are applied at the same time.

Wheel Cylinder

The wheel cylinder is a critical element in the drum brake assembly. It contains fluid-activated pistons that push the shoes against the drums to slow the wheels.

The wheel cylinder is also the source of many brake problems. If brake fluid leaks from the wheel cylinder, the vehicle could experience unreliable stopping, damage to new brake shoes, or partial brake system failure. A sticking wheel cylinder may cause brake drag, excessive pedal effort, and reduced braking efficiency.

Drum Brake Assembly

A drum brake assembly is used to bring the rear wheels of most vehicles to a stop. Fluid pressure from the master cylinder causes the wheel cylinder to push the brake shoes against the brake drums which are attached to the vehicle's rear wheels. The friction between the stationary shoes and the revolving drums causes the drums to slow and stop the rear wheels.

Worn drums and shoes, however, can cause unreliable stopping, excessive pedal effort, or brake pedal pulsation.

Disc Brake Assembly

Because a disc brake assembly can absorb more heat than a drum brake assembly, most cars use disc brakes for their front brake systems. When the brake pedal is pushed, brake fluid from the master cylinder compresses the brake pads against the rotors attached to the vehicle's front wheels. The friction between the stationary pads and the revolving rotors causes the rotors and wheel to slow and stop.  In day-to-day driving, these rotors and pads are subject to much abuse, and should be checked periodically for wear. Faulty disc brakes can cause excessive pedal travel, pumping or fighting pedal, vibration during braking action, and brake failure.

VVT-i Engine

VVT-i, or Variable Valve Timing with intelligence:-

                                                                                                                                       is an automobile variable valve timingtechnology developed by Toyota, similar in performance to the BMW's VANOS. The Toyota VVT-i system replaces the Toyota VVT offered starting in 1991 on the 5-valve per cylinder 4A-GE engine. The VVT system is a 2-stage hydraulically controlled cam phasing system.

VVT-i, introduced in 1996, varies the timing of the intake valves by adjusting the relationship between the camshaft drive (belt, scissor-gear or chain) and intake camshaft. Engine oil pressure is applied to an actuator to adjust the camshaft position. Adjustments in the overlap time between the exhaust valve closing and intake valve opening result in improved engine efficiency. Variants of the system, including  Dual VVT-i.

Toyota VVT-i
Toyota came somewhat late to this party; its Variable Valve Timing with Intelligence (VVT-i) system was introduced for the V-8, V-6, and I-6 engines in '98-model-year Lexus LS400s, SCs, and GSs. But the company is making up for lost time, as VVT-i is now on virtually every Toyota and Lexus car in the line.

VVT-i works much like Honda's VTC system. An engine control unit monitors various inputs (including engine speed, airflow, coolant temperature, and so on). Using oil pressure to actuate a camshaft timing pulley, it then advances or retards the intake camshaft to suit the engine's operating needs.

Since the introduction back in 1997, Toyota has developed a two-step, rpm-related variation of VVT-i called VVTL-i, which stands for Variable Valve Timing and Lift with Intelligence. Found aboard the 1.8L, 180hp engine in Toyota's Celica GT-S, the VVTL-i combines the continuously variable cam phasing with new, dual-lobe camshafts for both the intake and exhaust valves. At engine speeds below 6,000 rpm, a set of rocker arms follows a set of low-lift, short-duration lobes. At six grand, a pin under the rocker arms pushes them so they engage the second lobe set, which has been ground to make significantly higher lift. As with the VTEC system, the taller lift is better matched to the air-gulping needs of an engine spinning between 6,000 rpm and its 7,800-rpm redline.

Variable valve timing allows the relationship between the separate inlet and exhaust camshafts to vary the valve timing overlap. In doing so it overcomes the side effects described above by using a computer to continuously vary the intake valve timing and overlap. The valve timing and overlap are adjusted through a series of simple mechanisms to ensure the optimum conditions apply across all the working rev range. The advantages are lower fuel consumption, lower exhaust emissions and higher power output. Because the system is continuously variable, an ‘i’ for ‘intelligent’ has been added to the acronym.

Dual VVT-i :-

                                   in 1998, Dual VVT-i which adjusts timing on both intake and exhaust camshafts was first introduced on the RS200 Altezza's 3S-GE engine.

Dual VVT-i is also found in Toyota's new generation V6 engine, the 3.5-liter 2GR-FE first appearing on the 2005 Avalon. This engine can now be found on numerous Toyota and Lexus models. By adjusting the valve timing, engine start and stop occurs almost unnoticeably at minimum compression. In addition fast heating of the catalytic converter to its light-off temperature is possible thereby reducing hydrocarbon emissions considerably.

Toyota's UR engine V8 also uses this technology. Dual VVT-i was later introduced to Toyota's latest small 4-cylinder ZR engines found in compact vehicles such as the new Toyota Corolla and Scion xD and in larger 4-cylinder AR engines found in the Camry and RAV4.

In 1998, “Dual” VVT-i (adjusts both intake and exhaust camshafts) was first introduced in the RS200 Altezza’s 3S-GE engine. Dual VVT-i is also found in Toyota’s new generation V6 engine, the 3.5L 2GR-FE V6. This engine can be found in the Avalon, RAV4, and Camry in the US, the Aurion in Australia, and various models in Japan, including the Estima. Dual VVT-i is also used in the Toyota Corolla (1.6 dual VVT-i 124bhp).

Other Dual VVT-i engines include the 1.8L 2ZR-FE I4, used in Toyota’s next generation of compact vehicles such as the Scion XD. It is also used in the 2JZ-GE and 2JZ-GTE engines used in the Lexus IS300 and in the Toyota Supra. By adjusting the valve timing engine start and stop occurs virtually unnoticeably at minimum compression. In addition fast heating of the catalytic converter to its light-off temperature is possible thereby reducing hydrocarbon emissions considerably.

ENGINE

An engine (or motor) is a machine designed to convert energy into useful mechanical motion.

Engines come in many types, a common type is a heat engine such as an internal combustion engine which typically burns a fuel with air and uses the hot gases for generating power. External combustion engines such as steam engines use heat to generate motion via a separate working fluid.

Terminology

Originally an engine was a mechanical device that converted force into motion. Military devices such as catapults, trebuchets and battering rams are referred to as siege engines. The term "gin" as in cotton gin is recognised as a short form of the Old French word engin, in turn from the Latin ingenium, related to ingenious. Most devices used in the industrial revolution were referred to as engines, and this is where thesteam engine gained its name.[citation needed]

In modern usage, the term is used to describe devices capable of performing mechanical work, as in the original steam engine. In most cases the work is produced by exerting a torque or linear force, which is used to operate other machinery which can generate electricity,pump water, or compress gas. In the context of propulsion systems, an air-breathing engine is one that uses atmospheric air to oxidise thefuel carried rather than supplying an independent oxidizer, as in a rocket.

In common usage, an engine burns or otherwise consumes fuel, and is differentiated from an electric machine (i.e., electric motor) that derives power without changing the composition of matter. A heat engine may also serve as a prime mover, a component that transforms the flow or changes in pressure of a fluid into mechanical energy. An automobile powered by an internal combustion engine may make use of various motors and pumps, but ultimately all such devices derive their power from the engine.

The term motor was originally used to distinguish the new internal combustion engine-powered vehicles from earlier vehicles powered bysteam engines, such as the steam roller and motor roller, but may be used to refer to any engine.

History Of Engine

(1)  Antiquity :-

                                    Simple machines, such as the club and oar (examples of the lever), are prehistoric. More complex engines using human power, animal power, water power, wind power and even steam power date back to antiquity. Human power was focused by the use of simple engines, such as the capstan, windlass or treadmill, and with ropes, pulleys, and block and tackle arrangements; this power was transmitted usually with the forces multiplied and the speed reduced. These were used in cranes and aboard ships in Ancient Greece, as well as in mines, water pumps and siege engines in Ancient Rome. The writers of those times, including Vitruvius, Frontinus and Pliny the Elder, treat these engines as commonplace, so their invention may be far more ancient. By the 1st century AD, various breeds of cattle and horses were used in mills, driving machines similar to those powered by humans in earlier times.

According to Strabo, a water powered mill was built in Kaberia of the kingdom of Mithridates during the 1st century BC. Use of water wheelsin mills spread throughout the Roman Empire over the next few centuries. Some were quite complex, with aqueducts, dams, and sluices to maintain and channel the water, along with systems of gears, or toothed-wheels made of wood and metal to regulate the speed of rotation. In a poem by Ausonius in the 4th century, he mentions a stone-cutting saw powered by water. Hero of Alexandria is credited with many suchwind and steam powered machines in the 1st century AD, including the Aeolipile, but it is not known if any of these were put to practical use.

(2)  Medieval :-

                                    During the Muslim Agricultural Revolution from the 9th to 13th centuries, Muslim engineers developed numerous innovative industrial uses ofhydropower, early industrial uses of tidal power, wind power, and fossil fuels such as petroleum, together with the earliest large factorycomplexes (tiraz in Arabic). The industrial uses of watermills in the Islamic world date back to the 7th century, whereas horizontal-wheeledand vertical-wheeled water mills were both in widespread use since at least the 9th century. A variety of industrial mills were invented in the Islamic world, including fulling mills, hullers, steel mills, sugar refineries, and windmills. By the 11th century, every province throughout the Islamic world had these industrial mills in operation, from the Middle East and Central Asia to al-Andalus and North Africa.

Roman engineers invented water turbines in the 4th century AD, Muslim engineers employed gears in mills and water-raising machines, and pioneered the use of dams as a source of water power to provide additional power to watermills and water-raising machines. Such advances made it possible for many industrial tasks that were previously driven by manual labour to be mechanized and driven by machinery to some extent in the medieval Islamic world.

In 1206, al-Jazari employed a crank-connecting rod system for two of his water-raising machines. A similar steam turbine later appeared in Europe a century later, which eventually led to the steam engine and Industrial Revolution in 18th century Europe.

 (3)  Industrial revolution :-

                                                                   English inventor Sir Samuel Morland allegedly used gunpowder to drive water pumps in the 17th century. For more conventional, reciprocatinginternal combustion engines, the fundamental theory for two-stroke engines was established by Sadi Carnot, France, 1824, whilst the American Samuel Morey received a patent on April 1, 1826. Sir Dugald Clark (1854–1932) designed the first two-stroke engine in 1878 and patented it in England in 1881. Automotive production has used a range of energy-conversion systems. These include electric, steam, solar,turbine, rotary, and piston-type internal combustion engines.

Karl Benz was one of the leaders in the development of new engines. In 1878 he began to work on new designs. He concentrated his efforts on creating a reliable gas two-stroke engine that was more powerful, based on Nikolaus Otto's design of the four-stroke engine. Karl Benz showed his real genius, however, through his successive inventions registered while designing what would become the production standard for his two-stroke engine. Benz was granted a patent for it in 1879.

The lightweight petrol internal combustion engine, operating on a four-stroke Otto cycle, has been the most successful for automobiles, while the more efficient diesel engine is used for trucks and buses.

(4) Horizontally opposed pistons :-

                                                                                                      In 1896, Karl Benz was granted a patent for his design of the first engine with horizontally opposed pistons. Many BMW motorcycles use this engine type. His design created an engine in which the corresponding pistons move in horizontal cylinders and reach top dead center simultaneously, thus automatically balancing each other with respect to their individual momentums. Engines of this design are often referred to as flat engines because of their shape and lower profile. They must have an even number of cylinders and six, four or two cylinder flat engines have all been common. The most well-known engine of this type is probably the Volkswagen Beetle engine. Engines of this type continue to be a common design principle for high performance aero engines (for propellor driven aircraft) and, engines used by automobile producers such as Porsche and Subaru.

(5) Advancement :-

                                                        Continuance of the use of the internal combustion engine for automobiles is partly due to the improvement of engine control systems (onboard computers providing engine management processes, and electronically controlled fuel injection). Forced air induction by turbocharging and supercharging have increased power outputs and engine efficiencies. Similar changes have been applied to smaller diesel engines giving them almost the same power characteristics as petrol engines. This is especially evident with the popularity of smaller diesel engine propelled cars in Europe. Larger diesel engines are still often used in trucks and heavy machinery. They do not burn as clean as gasoline engines, however they have far more torque. The internal combustion engine was originally selected for the automobile due to its flexibility over a wide range of speeds. Also, the power developed for a given weight engine was reasonable; it could be produced by economical mass-production methods; and it used a readily available, moderately priced fuel - petrol.

(6) Increasing power :-

                                                                   The first half of the twentieth century saw a trend to increasing engine power, particularly in the American models. Design changes incorporated all known methods of raising engine capacity, including increasing the pressure in the cylinders to improve efficiency, increasing the size of the engine, and increasing the speed at which power is generated. The higher forces and pressures created by these changes created engine vibration and size problems that led to stiffer, more compact engines with V and opposed cylinder layouts replacing longer straight-line arrangements.

(7) Combustion efficiency :-

                                                                                 The design principles favoured in Europe, because of economic and other restraints such as smaller and twistier roads, leant toward smaller cars and corresponding to the design principles that concentrated on increasing the combustion efficiency of smaller engines. This produced more economical engines with earlier four-cylinder designs rated at 40 horsepower (30 kW) and six-cylinder designs rated as low as 80 horsepower (60 kW), compared with the large volume V-8 American engines with power ratings in the range from 250 to 350 hp (190 to 260 kW).[citation needed]

(8) Engine configuration :-

                                                                              Earlier automobile engine development produced a much larger range of engines than is in common use today. Engines have ranged from 1 to 16 cylinder designs with corresponding differences in overall size, weight, piston displacement, and cylinder bores. Four cylinders and power ratings from 19 to 120 hp (14 to 90 kW) were followed in a majority of the models. Several three-cylinder, two-stroke-cycle models were built while most engines had straight or in-line cylinders. There were several V-type models and horizontally opposed two- and four-cylinder makes too. Overhead camshafts were frequently employed. The smaller engines were commonly air-cooled and located at the rear of the vehicle; compression ratios were relatively low. The 1970s and '80s saw an increased interest in improved fuel economy which brought in a return to smaller V-6 and four-cylinder layouts, with as many as five valves per cylinder to improve efficiency. The Bugatti Veyron 16.4 operates with a W16 engine meaning that two V8 cylinder layouts are positioned next to each other to create the W shape.

The largest internal combustion engine ever built is the Wärtsilä-Sulzer RTA96-C, a 14-cylinder, 2-stroke turbocharged diesel engine that was designed to power the Emma Maersk, the largest container ship in the world. This engine weighs 2300 tons, and when running at 102 RPM produces 109,000 bhp (80,080 kW) consuming some 13.7 tons of fuel each hour.